Lebanon's Main Hazards: Final

Lebanon is a country that is fortunate (and unfortunate) to be a part of the Mediterranean climate. The country of Lebanon borders Syria and Israel. In Lebanon, summer takes place from June to September with extreme heat, spring and autumn are in between temperatures and December to mid-March are the winter months in which it is rainy in most of Lebanon and snowing in the mountains.  Being that Lebanon has very dry heat in the summer times, some of the natural hazards that affect Lebanon are mass wasting and earthquakes. In order to minimize these two most important hazards for the Lebanese citizens, litigations and precautions need to be put into place.

Mass wasting is often unexpected in communities. Many citizens in fact are unaware of what this really means and what the consequences can mean for their homes, the community and their families. Mass wasting is downslope movement of earth materials. Lebanon has suffered from increased mass wasting from the years of 1956-2008, as per an article titled "The effect of forest fire on mass movement in Lebanese mountainous areas". The increased mass wasting is at a relatively high 60% increase. Forests fires can be an extreme rock weathering agent and therefore the actions used to prevent this natural disaster from repeating itself should be attempted at its’ maximum potency. Due to Lebanon’s dry weather in the summer, the chances of forest fires are higher than other countries.

Due to the fires within mostly the summertime, the country of Lebanon suffers from enhanced water repellency. In addition to high fire hazard, Lebanon also suffers from "irregular and highly intense rainfalls" due to its Mediterranean weather. The contrast of hot and wet on rocks and its land causes this country to suffer from the occurrence of mass wasting. In order to prevent mass wasting from affecting the citizens of Lebanon I would encourage them to not build near the forests or leave children unattended near it as well, due to the great impact of natural wildfires and leading to mass wasting. One of the suggestions I would make is to always be aware of your surroundings and travel in groups when preceding a path through the forests.

In 551A. D. the Beirut earthquake took place in capital of modern-day Lebanon. This earthquake has the unfortunate event of  killing over 30,000 people and it left Beirut with so much damage to architecture and its’ city that it “took decades for Beirut to recover its position as a regional capital following the disaster, and even then, it never entirely regained its former glory (Williams, Paragraph 2). According to experts the country of Lebanon is due for another major earthquake since the last earthquake took place in 1759. The earthquake of 1759 took the lives of 40,000 people within the country of Syria and Lebanon. One of the faults running through Lebanon is The Yammouneh fault. This fault line “produces an earthquake about once every eight to 10 centuries, and the Mount Lebanon Thrust every 15 to 17 centuries.”

 Within the Middle East, there are at least four major tectonic plates (Arabia, Eurasia, India, and Africa) and one smaller tectonic block (Anatolia).

In order to prevent the loss of lives during earthquakes and to prevent the same tragedy that occur within the Beirut earthquake, I would ensure that all buildings complies with the law requirements passed in 1994. The law to ensure all buildings were safe from earthquakes was passed in 1994. This law states that “all new construction must be built according to standards incorporating seismic resistance. But most residential buildings are old, built before these laws were introduced. And with little government oversight, construction laws are rarely enforced”.I would ensure these laws were followed in order to keep citizens safe. There is nothing done to prevent earthquakes from occurring but there are limitations that should be upheld in order to prevent humans from being harmed in this natural disaster. Over 70%  of Lebanese citizens live among the coast and because homes have been established within these areas, I would give them the option of moving into the city within distance from the forests in order to prevent mass waste from affecting citizens as well, at low cost or no cost. When in terms of thinking of the future, it would be much cheaper to take preventative measures to ensure all buildings can either withstand an earthquake or are far away from it that they will not be affected by buildings collapsing or a Tsunami. I would also ensure that all citizens were aware of where their homes are located, have the option to move if desired and to be highly skilled in what to do when an earthquake arrives or mass wasting occurs, as well as ensuring that the children are trained as well.  

Although only some natural disasters can be prevented, many can be avoided. As mentioned previously, a natural hazard is only a hazard because humans are involved. If all humans are trained adequately, there should be minimal threat to all citizens.

https://www.researchgate.net/jou1049-8001_International_Journal_of_Wildland_Firel

https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/beirut-is-ridiculously-unprepared-for-a-major-earthquake

https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/middle-east/lebanon/weather-climate-geography/

(https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/k/).

Coastal Problems in Lebanon

Lebanon is a country that touches the Mediterranean Sea (as noticed in picture on the left). Everything form keystone species to global warming affects Lebanon in terms of how much affect it has on the ocean. Since a large majority of Lebanese citizens build their homes near the coast, they run the danger of dealing with erosion. Erosion and global warming cause a "...combination of rising sea levels, stronger coastal storms and coastal development...this means that sandy shorelines are increasingly disappearing, leaving the millions who live there facing major challenges in a warming world" (Paragraph 1).

In order to help the coast, many turn to a process named "beach nurishment". This is "a process that pumps sand from dredging ships offshore to replace the lost sand on the beach" (Paragraph 4). beach nourishment is not a one time deal so in order to maintain this, you must have the money to maintain it's upkeep as well.

In terms of erosion and global warming near the coast, it is important to know that not only is the architecture to be affected with erosion but the sea levels are bound to rise as well. The sea levels will rise with the melting of ice glaciers and although everyone will be affected by this, those living near the coast will experience the results sooner. "Sea level has risen about eight inches since 1900 as climate change has melted land ice and warmed the ocean, but the rate is projected to increase as temperatures rise" (Paragraph 8).
 

There are small steps that can be done by everyone to minimize global warming such as not using aerosol cans, driving less and using less natural resources. However, it is not a one person choice and definitely not the impact of one country on their own. The country of Lebanon is doing their part as well by recycling and commuting by walking in hope that one day, we can all take preventative measures as well.


https://weather.com/science/environment/news/scientists-see-losses-cities-fighting-beach-erosion
https://www.britannica.com/place/Lebanon

Dust Storm in Lebanon

In Arabic, haboob means "violent wind". In 2015, the seven countries of Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus and Israel got the unfortunate event of undergoing a severe dust storm, also referred to as "haboob". Unfortunately, the dust storm left 12 dead and "...with its reduced visibility, sent thousands of people to hospitals with breathing problems..." (Paragraph 3). Although dust storms are common in the middle east, and are more common during it's hot seasons (June-September) the particular event that occurred in September of 2015 was unpredicted. As per meteorologist Ken Waters, "Haboobs are most common in hot and dry conditions, which have been prevalent across much of the Middle East this summer. The two ingredients needed are an availability of dust or sand particles at the surface and enough sustained wind to get those particles moving..." (Paragraph 5). "Scientists aren’t sure what the minimum wind speed is for a dust storm to form, but small, localized storms have been observed with speeds as low as 20 miles (32 kilometers) per hour. Larger ones, like the one that has pummelled Damascus and Beirut this week, need higher speeds to travel long distances..." (Paragraph 6).

Moisture is a primary cause for this natural event to take place in such dry climate. "Moisture tends to weigh dirt down and keep it in place, so more dust storms tend to occur during droughts. Human activity that disturbs the soil, such as construction or fallowing farm fields, can also expose dirt that can contribute to storms" (Paragraph 7).

There has been a "severe increase of sand and dust storms in the middle East in the past 15 years" as per BBC News, as well as an increase in the intensity of them.
If continued, dust and sand storms could cause the "disappearance of marshes and drying up of lakes" as what has been occurring in Iraq and Iran in 2016. A couple of years earlier in 2013, a similar event occurred in the previous regions with winds of 60mph with less severe turnouts than those experienced recently.

The image above used to be the Aral Sea in Kazahstan but due to high winds, much of it has dried out.

"Disruptions to transportation and potentially dangerous air quality are typically the two biggest impacts of the storms..." (Paragraph 4) and as mentioned previously, so is the impact that humans have upon the land, which causes the dirt to be exposed. Hopefully, with measures taken within humanity, less land can be used and the impact of dust storms can be minimized to a lower extent. With small measures, humans can lower the impact but not completely prevent it.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150908-middle-east-dust-storm-haboob-weather/
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36553594
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34185291

Mass Wasting in Lebanon

Many people fear tornados, tsunamis, earthquakes and floods but very few stop to think about the consequences about everyday occurrences such as mass wasting. Mass wasting is defined by Keller as "A comprehensive term for any type of downslope movement of earth materials." This type of action within certain communities is unknown and unexpected such as the many landslides that have occurred in places around the US, including the incident at La Conchita. In order to discuss the effects of mass waste around Lebanon, it is pertinent to discuss the impact upon Lebanon. Lebanon has suffered from increased mass wasting from the years of 1956-2008, as per an article titled "The effect of forest fire on mass movement in Lebanese mountainous areas". The increased mass wasting is at a relatively high 60% increase.



"Forest fire is considered a significant, if not the primary,
foundation of geomorphological and hydrological modification
in fire-prone areas over both short and long time scales. Apart
from its visible effect on reducing vegetation and litter, forest
fire can be an essential rock-weathering agent (‭Paragraph 2). Because the area in Lebanon is relatively dry, the country is exposed to more fires than other countries. Due to many fires (mainly writhing June to September) the area within the country of Lebanon suffers from mass waste due to the rock weathering occurring and "enhanced water repellency". In addition to high fire hazard, Lebanon also suffers from "irregular and highly intense rainfalls" due to its Mediterranean weather. The contrast of hot and wet on rocks and its land causes this country to suffer from the occurrence of mass wasting. ‬


In order to avoid and minimize occurrences of endangerment to Lebanese citizens, a method of remote sensing data has been establishes.
"RS techniques were used to detect the distribution of mass
movements over the study area. Such techniques offer promis-
ing possibilities for identifying and securing information on
mass movement and forest fire detection in several difficult-to-
access, rugged mountainous karstic landscapes that are present
throughout this area" (Paragraph 14). The RS techniques this country has developed has greatly changed the impact of mass waste upon its citizens. As mentioned previously, a natural hazard is only a hazard because humans are involved. I find their technique useful in detecting mass wasting and preventing a natural disaster to the Lebanese citizens.


https://www.researchgate.net/jou1049-8001_International_Journal_of_Wildland_Firel
https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/fs-2004-3072.html(This link contains an image of the incident at La Conchita. It is not the country of Lebanon, however, it is an incident that occurred in CA and it is to give the visual of what mass wasting looks like. I was unable to save images for some unknown reason but I would like to direct you to a site with a visual).

Lebanon's Surrpunding Country and Volcanoes

     When I was in elementary school I became fascinated with history and book portraying the natural events in the past that had occurred in times of B.C. One of the events that always came up on these books was that of volcanic activity and it's aftermaths. One of the things I'll be discussing today is Volcanoes. Since my country is Lebanon and I could not find any information stating volcanic activity in Lebanon or any active/dormant volcanoes, I would like to emphasize the relation to volcanoes of another country near mine. This country is Turkey and it is one country apart from Lebanon (as noticed in the picture below)

     Volcanoes are, as defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as “…a vent in the crust of the earth or another planet or a moon from which usually molten or hot rock and steam issue”. The hazard level for Lebanon in regards to volcanoes and volcanic activity is “very low”. This information derived from www.ThinkHazard.org defines very low when "...no eruption has been reported in the area".  In contrast to Lebanon's very low volcanic impact, turkey on the other has has a list of volcanic mountains (Listed by regions below). (https://volcanicmountainsinturkey.wordpress.com/)

Marmara Region: Uludağ
Southeastern Anatolia Region: Karacadağ
The Black Sea Region: Köroğlu Mountains
Mediterranean Region: Hassa Region (Hatay)
Aegean Region: Kula Dunes (the youngest)
Eastern Anatolia Region: Ağrı, Tendürek, Nemrut, Süphan Mountain
The Central Anatolia Region: Erciyes, Melendiz, Hasandağ.

      Among all these, Turkey is the onlyvolcano that is currently active. "Tendürek in the south of Mount Ararat Mountain, Turkey is the only active volcanic mountain. 3584 meters high. And about 500 meters wide at the top of the mountain, there is a crater, and the crater with a variety of hot gases are water vapor. Ağrı is considered an active volcano in the country within the borders of a single Tendürek volcano. Approximately five hundred meters to the east of the mountain, and the diameter of the crater, which comes hot water vapors and hydrogen sulfide gases. These gases are the edges of the crater, the yellow color of sulfur, which leads to formation of a mineral. Temperature of the hot water steams volcano erupted about 60 degrees".

       One of the things that I most found fascinating about this country when conducting my research was HOW MANY volcanoes it has. It shocked me to find that only one was active. I was surprised by all the articles and information found on this country regarding the volcanoes.

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/volcano

http://thinkhazard.org/report/141-lebanon/VA

https://volcanicmountainsinturkey.wordpress.com/

Earthquake Activity in Lebanon

  In an article by Lauren Williams titled, “Beirut is Ridiculously Unprepared for a Major Earthquake it describes the massive earthquake Lebanon encountered in 551AD in “the Roman empire, Berytus, the capital of modern-day Lebanon. She states, “A massive earthquake tumbled buildings and sparked a tsunami that wiped the city off the map and killed an estimated 30,000 people. It took decades for Beirut to recover its position as a regional capital following the disaster, and even then, it never entirely regained its former glory (Paragraph 2). “The country is overdue for another major quake, the last one having hit in 1759, when two quakes, one month apart and each measuring a seven on the Richter scale, killed some 40,000 people in Lebanon and Syria. The Yammouneh fault line produces an earthquake about once every eight to 10 centuries, and the Mount Lebanon Thrust every 15 to 17 centuries. Both have the potential to generate earthquakes of up to 7.5 in magnitude” (Paragraph 6).

 "No fewer than four major tectonic plates (Arabia, Eurasia, India, and Africa) and one smaller tectonic block (Anatolia) are responsible for seismicity and tectonics in the Middle East”.(https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1083/k/).

     The most interesting thing I found in this article pertains to the enormous amount of people living amongst the coast. William states, “70% of the 4 million people live among the coast”. When in regards to what the country is doing to minimize the impact from the next unpredictable earthquake, there was “A law passed in 1994 says all new construction must be built according to standards incorporating seismic resistance. But most residential buildings are old, built before these laws were introduced. And with little government oversight, construction laws are rarely enforced”.  As for the citizens of Lebanon, the structures of the buildings are not meant for seismic action to occur because as mentioned before, only new buildings are built to withstand earthquakes and although they are not aware of when the next earthquake will come, it is best to be prepared when dealing with natural disaster especially for the Lebanese citizens living among the coast. I was majorly surprised to see that no earthquake had occurred since then  but even more so, how unprepared it was for one and a Tsunami included.

Let's talk Plate Tectonics!

Let's talk plate tectonics and faults! So to start off, Lebanon neighbors Syria, Jordan and Israel. It also homes it's longest fault, approximately 10-12 million years old--The Yammouneh Fault "...that runs along the western margin of the Bekaa and links the major fault of the Jordan Valley to the Ghab Valley Fault of Northern Syria" (http://almashriq.hiof.no/ddc/projects/geology/geology-of-lebanon/). The Yammouneh Fault is "...a lateral, or strike slip fault and is the Lebanese segment of the Dead Sea Transform Fault". This fault also provides a marking/boundary between "...the Arabia Plate and the Levantine part of the African Plate". As Keller states in page 30, that in "20 million years, cities will be side by side", the Yammouneh Fault has also caused Bekaa to move approximately 50 km northwards. It is not clear if the Yammouneh Fault is dead or dormant. However, although this fault may be the longest, "The Roum Fault, which runs from near Marjayoun towards Beirut is probably where most of the plate tectonic motion is going on now and may be the present plate boundary between the Arabian and the African Plate." Luckily for Lebanon, "The last recent earthquakes in Lebanon have been along this fault including the Chhim earthquake of 1956".

In an article by the Huffington Post titled, "Preparing for Lebanon's Next Earthquake" James Denselow states "Beirut was destroyed by an Earthquake-Tsunami combo in 551 AD. Today it is host to a dense urban population many of whom live in poor quality housing (especially in refugee camps and in the southern suburbs) and on soft, sandy ground near the coast. Such a population environment would be particularly vulnerable to an earthquake that Abdel-Rahman, professor and chairperson at AUB's Department of Geology, warned earlier this year 'could occur any day'" (Paragraph 2).

The Difference Between a Hazard, a Natural Disaster and a Catastrophe

As per stated by Keller, a hazard is "...a natural process and event that is a potential threat to human life and property." A natural disaster is "...a hazardous event that occurs over a limited time span within a defined criteria. Criteria for a natural disaster are (1) 10 or more people are killed, (2) 100 or more people are affected, (3) a state of emergency is declared, and (4) international assistance is requested. A catastrophe is defined as "...a massive disaster that requires significant expenditure of money and a long time (often years) for recovery to take place" (Paragraph 6).